Among the Stars: A History of Space Travel

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From seeing shooting stars to picturing constellations, humans have long looked up at the night sky and imagined what might exist above us.

Yet, historically speaking, humans have only very recently discovered what exists in our very own solar system, let alone sent people and spacecraft up to explore it.

But how did we go from discovering our own continents to exploring the stars?

Here is everything you need to know about the history of space travel and exploration – from our earliest understanding of space to the events that led to rocketry, astronauts, and landing on the moon. And with fingers crossed, this story is only just the beginning.

Dreams in the Sky: Historical Ideas of Space Travel

Many cultures have long had their own constellations and ideas of what the stars and heavens hold. Some ancient civilisations such as the Babylonians believed the universe to be an oyster surrounded by water, while others such as the Romans saw the planets of our solar system and named each after their Gods, hence why the brightest and largest planet in the sky is named after the chieftain of the Roman Gods – Jupiter.

But how much did our ancient ancestors actually understand about space?

Ancient Thoughts on “The Heavens”

As always, different cultures had different ideas: as philosophical discussion exploded in Ancient and Classic Greece, so too did ideas of astronomy.

Early Greeks in the 3^rd century BCE developed new ideas, such as Aristarchus of Samos who was the first to suggest a heliocentric system, while later in the 2^nd century BCE, Hipparchus of Nicaea completed his compilation of the first star catalogue, in which he proposed the modern system of apparent magnitudes.

Meanwhile, ancient Chinese astronomers meticulously tracked celestial movements, believing that heavenly patterns influenced earthly affairs. In Mesoamerica, the Maya developed sophisticated calendars based on astronomical observations, while their mythology described the cosmos as a multi-layered realm.

While few cultures had the full picture, many were able to track star movements and other celestial events such as eclipses with great accuracy.

Developing Our Understanding of The Universe

Guesswork and patchwork understanding of space has existed throughout human history, however, the scientific revolution in the 16^th and 17th Centuries dramatically transformed our conception of space.

From Copernicus’ proposed heliocentric model in the 16th century, to Galileo’s telescope observations providing the first detailed glimpses of celestial bodies as planets similar to Earth, evidence-based understanding of space expanded dramatically, bringing the heavens a little bit closer to Earth.

Further advancements in physics, astronomy, and the wider sciences broadened our understanding of both the world and beyond, and soon the industrial revolution and developments in transportation would bring our technology closer to space travel.

Eventually in 1903, despite predictions to the contrary, the first powered human flight would take place, marking the start of aviation – both for the public and in the arena of war.

From the Fires of War to the Frontier of Space

While gunpowder rockets, both in fireworks and weaponry, are much older than space rockets, the theoretical groundwork for modern rocketry was laid by Russian schoolteacher Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.

In 1903, the same year as the first flight, he published “The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices”, forming the foundation of future space travel calculations today. Slightly later in 1926, American physicist Robert Goddard applied these theories by launching the world’s first liquid-fuelled rocket, establishing the foundation for modern rocket technology.

As with many of the world’s technologies, true advancement came in the brutal fires of WW2, most notably with Germany’s V-2 rocket program led by Wernher von Braun.

Developed between 1936 and 1942 by the Nazis, the “Vengeance Rocket” was built to strike Germany’s enemies of WW2 no matter the distance. Built on the backs of concentration camp labour, the rocket was primarily a weapon of destruction both in its creation and delivery.

Yet, in 1944 during a test, the V-2 would become the first human-made object to reach the edge of space, just surpassing the widely recognised Kármán line, 100km above the Earth’s surface.

Although, at the time, such notions of space and the boundaries between Earth’s atmosphere and beyond were yet to be established.

The Cold War and the Space Race

As the war came to a close, German scientists deserted in droves to the two major allied powers of the USA and Soviet Union, joining their scientific communities and eventually their space programs.

The space race began in earnest when the Soviet Union shocked the world by launching Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, in October 1957. In response, the USA established NASA in 1958 and quickly accelerated its space program to catch up. Despite this, the Soviets extended their lead in the newly launched space race by launching the first human in space on April 12th 1961, as Yuri Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth aboard Vostok 1.

Coinciding with the Cold War, political tensions fuelled extreme levels of funding and investment into space technology by both superpowers, as each aimed to “win” and establish dominance over the other on the world stage.

With the race to Earth’s orbit being won by the Soviets, America set its sights a little further out.

And so, in 1961, President Kennedy declared that America would land a man on the moon “before this decade is out”. The next leg of the race was on.

Apollo 11 and Declining Interest in Space Exploration

The Soviets had proved that getting into orbit could be done – but actual “space travel” – i.e., travelling across the void, was yet to be achieved.

Travelling to orbit required a lot of energy, but was only 100 miles above the Earth’s surface. Going to the moon would entail a trip of 238,855 miles or over 2,000 times further than getting into orbit – not even mentioned the trip home.

As both powers raced to be the first, it would eventually be America to take the prize.

On July 20, 1969, American Astronaut Neil Armstrong stepped foot on the lunar surface, planted his flag, and boldly declared it “one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”

Five more successful Apollo landings followed, producing tonnes of scientific discovery, and historic images such as the Blue Marble photograph. The Apollo program would eventually end in 1972, marking the beginning of a steep decline in space travel.

While satellites in orbit continue to dominate our digital lives, the push for space travel since the Apollo missions has largely disappeared, caused by an end in the Cold War, lack of public interest, and a series of souring accidents such as the Challenger disaster in 1986 and later Columbia tragedy in 2003.

Rocket Revival and The Future of Space Travel

Whatever political, cultural, or social changes are occurring on Earth, Star Trek’s Jean-Luc Picard’s words will always ring true: “Space, the Final Frontier.”

Despite waning interest in space travel, the development of new ways to explore the stars never truly ceased. Practical advancements such as reusable rockets have dramatically lowered the cost of getting off-planet, while government initiatives such as the Artemis Program have relaunched a new race to go back to the moon – for good this time.

New technologies for space travel are constantly being conceived and developed, from Ion drives and nuclear-powered rockets to the futuristic “warp travel” Alcubierre drive and solar sails. There’s no telling how far humanity could go just in our lifetime.

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